Academic writing: Essays, research, citations

1. Avoid 'I' and 'you' in research writing. Use third person: 'This study examined...', 'The data show...'

2. Use formal vocabulary: 'investigate' not 'look into', 'demonstrate' not 'show', 'numerous' not 'many'.

3. Hedge your claims: 'The results suggest that...' (not 'The results prove that...'). 'It is likely that...' (not 'It is certain that...').

4. Use passive voice when the agent is not the focus: 'The experiment was conducted' (not 'I conducted the experiment').

5. Define your terms early. Do not assume the reader knows what you mean.

Introduction: state your topic, give background, present your thesis (your main argument).

Literature review (research papers): summarise existing research, identify the gap.

Body: each paragraph defends ONE point. Open with a topic sentence. Provide evidence (data, quotes from sources). Analyse the evidence. Connect to your thesis.

Counter-arguments: address opposing views. 'While X argues..., this study finds...'

Conclusion: summarise findings, acknowledge limitations, suggest future research.

Always cite your sources. The two most common formats:

APA (in-text): '(Smith, 2020)' or 'Smith (2020) argues that...'

Harvard (in-text): same as APA.

MLA (in-text): '(Smith 12)' with the page number.

Full citation in the bibliography: Author surname, initials (year). Title. Publisher.

Plagiarism is academic suicide. Cite everything. When in doubt, cite.

These soften absolute claims. Use them.

Verbs: suggest, indicate, appear, seem, tend to, may, might.

Adverbs: arguably, possibly, perhaps, broadly, generally.

Phrases: 'It could be argued that...', 'One interpretation is...', 'The evidence points to...'

Example: 'This may suggest that early intervention is beneficial.' (NOT 'This proves that early intervention is beneficial.')